Smleco pest control - Colombo, Sri Lanka

COMPANY PROFILE
SML Eco pest control is a company incorporated in Sri Lanka 2013 to provide pest control and fumigation services for the Domestic,Commercial and Industrial establishments.
OUR VISION
Our vision services as the framework for our roadmap and guides every aspect of our business by describing what we need to accomplish in order to continue achieving sustainable, quality growth.
People: Be a great place to work where people are inspired to be the best they can be.
Partners: Furthers a winning network of customers and suppliers, together we create mutual, enduring value.
Planet: Be a responsible citizen that makes a difference by helping build and support sustainable communities.
Profit: Maximize long-term return to shareowners while being mindful of our  

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overall responsibilities.
Productivity: Be highly effective, learn and fast-moving organization.
OUR MISSION
Our mission is to be one of the respectable Pest Control service provider and to increase market share, customer loyalty, to achieve operation and system improvement and in turn, increase customer satisfaction and reduce complaints for long term growth.

To refresh the world….
To inspire moments of optimism and happiness….
To create value and make a difference.



OUR TEAM

COMPANY PARTNER
Mr.Nishantha Fernando


TECHNICAL ADVISER
K.D.G.Sumanarathne

PEST CONTROL TECHNICIANS
Mr.Saliya
Mr.A.S.K.Perera
Mr.zahare-Helper
Mr.Susantha

ACCOUNTANT
Mrs.D.A.Rasmin

ACCOUNT CLERK
Mr.John Fernando

MESSENGER CLERK
Mr.Chulanga-Helper

COMPANY PARTNERS
Mr.Nishantha Fernando


MANAGER
Mr.Nishantha Fernando
TECHNICAL ADVISER
K.D.G.Sumanarathne
Experience:05 years working from john piper (pvt)ltd-A/Manager / Sales
01 Year working from Eagel pest control (pvt) ltd

PEST CONTROL TECHNICIANS
Mr.Saliya
Experience:

Mr.A.S.K.Perera
Experience :

ACCOUNTANT
Mrs.D.A.Rasmin
Experience:

OFFICE ADDRESS
SML Eco Pest Control
NO. 742/2,
Sirimawo Bandaranayaka Mawaha,
Colombo 14.
WAREHOUSE ADDRESS
SML Eco Pest Control
NO.102/A/3,
Subasingha Mawaha,
Batuwatta,
TELEPHONE / FAX
0112339039 / 0113104042
E-Mail ADDRESS
info@smlecopestcontrol.lk
nishantha@smlecopestcontrol.lk
azmara@smlecopestcontrol.lk
WEBSITE
www.smlecopestcontrol.lk

OUR BANK DETAILS
Commercial Bank of Ceylon PLC
Wattala Branch
No.396 , Negombo Road, Wattala.
Account No. 1560060283

MARKETING AREA AND VEHICLES
Lorry, Motor Car and Motor Bikes will be used for operations.
Operation will be done Island wide.

EXPERIENCE
We are a recognized company, together with our dynamic team of well trained, committed professionals and certified personnels to provide a high quality service to meet the standard required by the Pest Control Industry in Sri Lanka. I take pride in this industry as it leads towards protecting human health and its property.

TRAINING METHODS
We have informative training methods which include plant quarantine Department of Sri Lanka., workbooks that help our staff to work more effectively. This training helps our personnels to identify specific pests and to develop strategies to control them.

We are committed to continuously upgrading and creating innovative ideas to increase staff competency so as to attain high efficiency in meeting customer's requirements and satisfying their needs.




MORE SERVICES

We have the expertise in inspection, extermination and eradication of general pests.
Exporters – 20 ft/40ft and LCL Shipment Fumigation
Importers - 20 ft/40ft Shipment Fumigation

CONTAINER FUMIGATION

Container Shipping: Container ships are cargo ships that carry all of their load in truck-size intermodal containers, in a technique called containerization. They form a common means of commercial intermodal freight transport. Containers are used to transport dry foods such as; animal feed, grains and non-food agricultural produce such as tobacco, leather goods, textiles and wood products. These containers pose a high-risk to be carriers of pests. Therefore, fumigation of empty or loaded containers is mandatory before shipping. Fumigation is a quick control method for insects and other pests. Container Fumigation provides an effective container fumigation service to protect your business by preventing and curing pest infestations. Our national network of technical staff means that we can deliver a container fumigation service with a local response time, helping your business save on management time, whilst keeping you compliant with health and safety legislation.
At Container Fumigation we are experts in dealing with extermination of all kinds, in the home, in the business, on the farm, warehouses and in shipping and storage containers. If you find that you have a bug infestation first try to identify the bug. Catch the bug in a jar or take a picture of it. Now call in the professionals to identify what type of bug infestation you have and to deal with it properly. Many pesticides can be toxic, therefore it is always best to call in a professional to ensure that your family and pets will be safe.
You will also be assured that your insect infestation problem will be dealt with effectively. When using storage containers or shipping containers your belongings can become contaminated even before they have been placed in the container. The eggs for bugs such as weevils could already exist in what is being stored. They are especially found in grains, cereals etc, and storage areas can become warm which is the perfect condition for bugs to hatch.
SML Eco Pest Control is the company to call when you need fumigation services. We are one of the leading establishment’s in South Asian Region.Call on ContainerFumigation.ca we are an authorized professional fumigation service provider and hold valid government issued pesticides permits. We can quickly and thoroughly eradicate your pest contamination problem. Contact us if you have any questions about fumigation.



FUMIGATION /SAFETY EQUIPMENTS











HISTORY OF PEST CONTROL
Pest control is at least as old as agriculture, as there has always been a need to keep crops free from pests. In order to maximize food production, it is advantageous to protect crops from competing species of plants, as well as from herbivores competing with humans.
The conventional approach was probably the first to be employed, since it is comparatively easy to destroy weeds by burning them or plowing them under, and to kill larger competing herbivores, such as crows and other birds eating seeds. Techniques such as crop rotation, companion planting (also known as intercropping or mixed cropping), and the selective breeding of pest-resistant cultivars have a long history.
In the UK, following concern about animal welfare, human pest control and deterrence is gaining ground through the use of animal psychology rather than destruction. For instance, with the urban Red Fox which territorial behaviour is used against the animal, usually in conjunction with non-injurious chemical repellents. In rural areas of Britain, the use of firearms for pest control is quite common. Airguns are particularly popular for control of small pests such as rats, rabbits and grey squirrels, because of their lower power they can be used in more restrictive spaces such as gardens, where using a firearm would be unsafe.
Chemical pesticides date back 4,500 years, when the Sumerians used sulfur compounds as insecticides. The Rig Veda, which is about 4,000 years old, also mentions the use of poisonous plants for pest control. It was only with the industrialization and mechanization of agriculture in the 18th and 19th century, and the introduction of the insecticides pyrethrum and derris that chemical pest control became widespread. In the 20th century, the discovery of several synthetic insecticides, such as DDT, and herbicides boosted this development. Chemical pest control is still the predominant type of pest control today, although its long-term effects led to a renewed interest in traditional and biological pest control towards the end of the 20th century.







MAIN CAUSES
Many pests have only become a problem because of the direct actions of humans. Modifying these actions can often substantially reduce the pest problem. In the United States, raccoons caused a nuisance by tearing open refuse sacks. Many householders introduced bins with locking lids, which deterred the raccoons from visiting. House flies tend to accumulate wherever there is human activity and is virtually a global phenomenon, especially where food or food waste is exposed. Similarly, seagulls have become pests at many seaside resorts. Tourists would often feed the birds with scraps of fish and chips, and before long, the birds would become dependent on this food source and act aggressively towards humans.
Living organisms evolve and increase their resistance to biological, chemical, physical or any other form of control. Unless the target population is completely exterminated or is rendered incapable of reproduction, the surviving population will inevitably acquire a tolerance of whatever pressures are brought to bear - this results in an evolutionary arms race.

TYPES OF PEST CONTROL
Biological pest control
Biological pest control is the control of one through the control and management of natural predators and parasites. For example: mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bt Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis, a bacterium that infects and kills mosquito larvae, in local water sources. The treatment has no known negative consequences on the remaining ecology and is safe for humans to drink. The point of biological pest control, or any natural pest control, is to eliminate a pest with minimal harm to the ecological balance of the environment in its present form.

MECHANICAL PEST CONTROL
Mechanical pest control is the use of hands-on techniques as well as simple equipment, devices, and natural ingredients that provide a protective barrier betweenplants and insects. For example: weeds can be controlled by being physically removed from the ground. This is referred to as tillage and is one of the oldest methods of weed control.

PHYSICAL PEST CONTROL
Physical pest control is a method of getting rid of insects and small rodents by removing, attacking, or setting up barriers that will prevent further destruction of one's plants.

ELIMINATION OF OF BREEDING GROUNDS
Proper waste management and drainage of still water, eliminates the breeding ground of many pests.
Garbage provides food and shelter for many unwanted organisms, as well as an area where still water might collect and be used as a breeding ground by mosquitoes. Communities that have proper garbage collection and disposal, have far less of a problem with rats, cockroaches, mosquitoes, flies and other pests than those that don't.
Open air sewers are ample breeding ground for various pests as well. By building and maintaining a proper sewer system, this problem is eliminated.
Certain spectrums of LED light can "disrupt insects’ breeding.

POISONED BAIT
Poisoned bait is a common method for controlling rat populations, however is not as effective when there are other food sources around, such as garbage. Poisoned meats have been used for centuries for killing off wolves, birds that were seen to threaten crops, and against other creatures. This can be a problem, since a carcass which has been poisoned will kill not only the targeted animal, but also every other animal which feeds on the carcass. Humans have also been killed by coming in contact with poisoned meat, or by eating an animal which had fed on a poisoned carcass. This tool is also used to manage several caterpillars e.g.Spodoptera litura,fruit flies,snails and lugs,crabs etc.





FIELD BURNING
Traditionally, after a sugar cane harvest, the fields are all burned, to kill off any insects or eggs that might be in the fields. Examples of these pests are Rodents.

HUNTING
Historically, in some European countries, when stray dogs and cats became too numerous, local populations gathered together to round up all animals that did not appear to have an owner and kill them. In some nations, teams of rat catchers work at chasing rats from the field, and killing them with dogs and simple hand tools. Some communities have in the past employed a bounty system, where a town clerk will pay a set fee for every rat head brought in as proof of a rat killing.

TRAPS
With the many traps available on the market today you can easily remove mice and rats from homes. You must first know what rodent needs to be removed, you can then decide what type of trap is the best suited to your needs. The snap trap is the most widely used, it utilizes a trigger (sometimes shaped like cheese) to hold bait, and kills the rodent by striking it behind the head with a wire rod or jaw. In some instances you may wish to use glue traps also called glue boards. This type of trap requires the mouse or rat to attempt to cross the trap so the glue can hold the rodent. After a catch is made you can euthanize the rodent and dispose of it trap and all, or some glue boards will release the catch when you pour vegetable oil on them, as the oil reacts with the glue to lose its grip. The last type of trap are live catch traps, this type of trap is typically a repeating style so more than one animal can be caught at a time, they can also be released from this trap in a new location if desired.

PESTICIDES
Spraying pesticides by planes, handheld units, or trucks that carry the spraying equipment, is a common method of pest control. Crop dusters commonly fly over farmland and spray pesticides to kill off pests that would threaten the crops. However, some pesticides may cause cancer and other health problems, as well as harming wildlife.


STERILIZATION
Laboratory studies conducted with U-5897 (3-chloro-1,2-propanediol) where attempted in the early 1970s although these proved unsuccessful.[7] Research into sterilization bait is ongoing.
Another effective method of soil sterilization is soil steaming. Pest is killed through hot steam which is induced into the soil.
DESTRUCTION OF INFECTED PLANTS
Forest services sometimes destroy all the trees in an area where some are infected with insects, if seen as necessary to prevent the insect species from spreading. Farms infested with certain insects, have been burned entirely, to prevent the pest from spreading elsewhere.
NATURAL RODENT CONTROL
Several wildlife rehabilitation organizations encourage natural form of rodent control through exclusion and predator support and preventing secondary poisoning altogether.[8]
The United States Environmental Protection Agency agrees, noting in its Proposed Risk Mitigation Decision for Nine Rodenticides that “without habitat modification to make areas less attractive to commensal rodents, even eradication will not prevent new populations from recolonizing the habitat.”[9]
CONTAINER FUMIGATION SERVICES
Container Fumigations treat commodities to minimize or eliminate the risk of pests or disease.
Container Fumigation can be used to solve a variety of pest and disease concerns:
 Bed Bugs
 Pest Infestations of food product
 Oak Wilt Disease
 Salmonella
 Etc.
Nearly anything can be fumigated using the Container Fumigation method. The label restrictions of the fumigant used will dictate if a given commodity can be fumigated or not.
Container Fumigations, unlike In Transit Fumigations,require the container being fumigated remain stationery for the duration of the fumigation process. The container fumigated (Example: Semi Trailer) must be parked.
GRAIN BIN FUMIGATION
Presto-X Pest Control offers extensive experience in the fumigation of grain in bins and silos.
Grain Fumigation can be used to control a variety of Stored Product Pests, including:
 Rice Weevil
 Grain Weevil
 Confused Flour Beetle
 Red Flour Beetle
 Flat Grain Beetle
 Sawtoothed Grain Beetle
 Fungus Beetle
 Grain Borer
 Indian Meal Moth
 Etc.
Nearly all grains, including rice, wheat, corn, and cotton seed, can be fumigated. Depending on the commodity and label restrictions, typically Methyl Bromide, Phosphine or Sulfuryl Floride are used to fumigate grain.
SPM 15 (Import/Export) Fumigation
Over 170 governments adhere to the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), an international treaty, which promotes control measures to prevent the spread of pests and plant products.
International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) Revision Number 15 regulates wood packaging material used in international trade to reduce the possibility for foreign pests to be introduced into new areas.
Wood packaging material included in the ISPM 15 Regulation are:
 Crates
 Boxes
 Packing Cases
 Dunnage
 Pallets
 Cable Drums
 Spools
 Reels
Approved treatments of wood packaging materials under ISPM 15:
 Heat Treatment
 Methyl Bromide Treatment

PALLET FUMIGATION
Pallets, with or without commodity, can be fumigated using one of two methods:
 Tarp Fumigation
 Container Fumigation
Tarp Fumigations consist of covering the pallets with a gas proof fumigation tarp, with edges such that a gas seal is achieved.
Container Fumigations, the preferred method of pallet fumigation, place the pallets to be treated in a sealed container for fumigation. This method of pallet fumigation as it ensures the penetration of the fumigant and there is less risk associated with potential leakage. Learn more about Container Fumigations.
ISPM 15 Compliance for International Shipments
Due to the International Plant Protection Convention (IPCC) most pallets shipped across national borders must comply with ISPM 15 Regulations.
•
• Structural Fumigation
General or Structural Fumigations are typically carried out on Warehouses and Processing Plants.
Structural Fumigations entail the complete sealing of the structure to be fumigated and extensive time needed to complete the fumigation process.
Structural Fumigations have an immediate impact on advanced rodent and insect infestations, making them an appropriate solution in some circumstances.
Routine structural fumigations are rarely used as a primary pest management program due to the time and cost involved.




DISEASES & CONDITION CAUSED BY PESTS

Pest Disease Spread by
Norway Rats/Roof Rats Murine Typhus Rat flea bites
Norway Rats Weils Disease Rat urine
Rats Rat-Bite Fever Rat bite saliva
Mice Rickettsial Pox
Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis
Parasite mites
Mouse saliva, urine, and feces
Deer Mice/White Footed Mice Hantavirus
Lyme Disease (from ticks) Mouse droppings; urine; saliva
Tick bites
Ticks (Chipmunks are considered the main carrier of deer ticks, and they can also be carried by Deer Mice) Lyme Disease
Babesiosis
Ehrlichiosis/Anaplasmosis
Tick bites
Bites from infected rodents, etc.
Mosquitoes Eastern Encephalitis,
Eastern Seacoast,
West Nile Virus Mosquito bites
Flies
Flies are a major transmitter of diseases.
Read more about flies.
Hepatitis, E. Coli, tapeworm, staph, salmonella Contact with food, etc.
Pest Disease Spread by
Norway Rats/Roof Rats Murine Typhus Rat flea bites
Norway Rats Weils Disease Rat urine
Rats Rat-Bite Fever Rat bite saliva
Mice Rickettsial Pox
Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis
Parasite mites
Mouse saliva, urine, and feces
Deer Mice/White Footed Mice Hantavirus
Lyme Disease (from ticks) Mouse droppings; urine; saliva
Tick bites
Ticks (Chipmunks are considered the main carrier of deer ticks, and they can also be carried by Deer Mice) Lyme Disease
Babesiosis
Ehrlichiosis/Anaplasmosis
Tick bites
Bites from infected rodents, etc.
Mosquitoes Eastern Encephalitis,
Eastern Seacoast,
West Nile Virus Mosquito bites
Flies
Flies are a major transmitter of diseases.
Read more about flies.
Hepatitis, E. Coli, tapeworm, staph, salmonella Contact with food, etc.

Do's AND Don'ts OF PEST CONTROL
Do ask questions and find the answers.
How can you safely solve your pest problems? The key is to be willing to ask questions. Learning about the pests you have and options that are available to control specific pests is the first step.
Try pest prevention first.
• Remove sources of food, water and shelter.
• Store food in sealed plastic or glass containers. Garbage containing food scraps should be placed in tightly covered trash cans. Remove garbage regularly from your home.
• Fix leaky plumbing and don't let water accumulate anywhere in the home. Don't let water collect in trays under your house plants or refrigerator. Don't leave pet food and water out overnight.
• Clutter provides places for pests to breed and hide and makes it hard to get rid of them. Get rid of things like stacks of newspapers, magazines, or cardboard.
• Close off places where pests can enter and hide. For example, caulk cracks and crevices around cabinets or baseboards. Use steel wool to fill spaces around pipes. Cover any holes with wire mesh.
• Learn about the pests you have and options to control them.
• Check for pests in packages or boxes before carrying them into your home.


DO SAFELY AND CORRECTLY USED PESTICIDES
Keep pets and children away from areas where pesticides have been applied.
After preventative steps have been taken, you can use baits as a first line of chemical defense against insects or rodents. These are often effective and can be used with low risk of exposure to the pesticide, as long as they are kept out of the reach of children and pets.
Other relatively low-risk pesticides are available for some pests. Consult your local cooperative extension service office for recommendations suitable for your area. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Web site can help you identify your local extension service office.
Pesticides not contained in baits or traps should generally only be applied to targeted locations, not sprayed over the whole room. Use fogging devices only when absolutely necessary.
Always read and follow the pesticide label's instructions and safety warnings.
Use ready-to-use products (i.e., no mixing needed) whenever possible.
If you hire any outside persons to help control pests, ask them to find and correct the source of the problem before applying pesticides. For example, you might have to repair a leaky toilet to remove a water source. Ask them to use baits and crack and crevice treatments when feasible.
Only apply chemicals approved for use in homes; the label will list where the chemical may be used; write down the name and EPA registration number of any chemical used by someone you hire. You will need this information if you decide to look up more information on the pesticide. The pest control operator should be able to provide information about the chemical, such as the material safety data sheet.
Do dispose of leftover pesticides and pesticide containers properly.
Read the label to find out how to dispose of the pesticide and the container.
Many communities have household hazardous waste collections that will accept unwanted pesticides. Call your waste disposal authority for information about your community.
Don't use outdoor chemicals indoors.
Many chemicals intended for use outdoors are dangerous to use indoors because they will remain toxic longer inside than they would outdoors.
Don't assume that twice as much is better.
Always read and follow label directions.
Using too much of a pesticide can endanger your family's health.
Don't transfer pesticides to other containers.
Store pesticides in their original containers.
Only mix as much as you are going to use at one time if the pesticide must be mixed with water.
Children and others have been poisoned by accidentally consuming pesticides stored in food or beverage containers. Don't use empty pesticide containers to store anything else.
No matter how well you wash the container, it could still contain remnants of the pesticide and could harm someone.














TERMITE INSPECTION USING
TERMATRAC: A hand held electronic device that detects the movement of termites through solid objects is used. It uses microwave technology to detect termite activity hidden below the surface of the timber, brick, tile or masonry of building materials or the
Termites, cockroaches and ants
Rodent, mosquitoes, bees / hornets
Snakes, flies, crawling / flying insects
Warehousing
Any situation where fumigation is required
TERMITE PROOFING
Corrective treatment against subterranean termites
Soil treatment against subterranean termites (with warranty)
TERMITE REMOVAL


If you are reading this page then you may well be suspecting a colony of termites has moved into your home. If this is the case then you have come to the right place and your next step should be to contact the professionals. They are trained to evaluate the extent of your problem and advise you on your best course of action.
Termites are tiny little insects attracted to water and wood. Termites are quite destructive and have been known to cause considerable damage to residential buildings, farm buildings, crops and plantation forests. They readily chew through vinyl, linoleum, and underground cables and can wreak havoc on wood. Nevertheless, they are also very important to the conservation of the environment because they themselves are food for many predators and they also recycle nutrients in the soil and they hollow out timber to provide shelter for other small creatures and birds.
Termites are commonly referred to as ‘White Ants’ because of their pale, white bodies and perhaps because like ants, they live in colonies of several hundred to several million individuals and work together to get tasks done. However, they are in no way actually related to Ants but are in fact more closely related to cockroaches.
A termite colony consists of the following selection of termites: nymphs (semi-mature young), workers, soldiers, and reproductive individuals of both genders, with the addition of several egg-laying queens. The colony is self-organised and together they work to exploit food sources and build nests, which could never be achieved by each of them individually.

The termite workers construct nests for the colony using a mixture of soil, mud, chewed wood/cellulose, saliva, and faeces. The termite nest has many purposes; as well as a protective living space for its inhabitants; it is also designed to collect water through condensation. There are specially built chambers for reproduction and many tunnels for air to flow through and allow the termites to travel about. The termite nests are most usually built underground inside big pieces of wood or fallen trees. Some termites prefer to build a mound above ground in which they nest instead. These mounds are then used by other creatures after the termites have departed.
A colony of termites may include a few termite ‘Queens’ and each of these ‘Queens’ will reproduce. Female termites can produce an incredible number of eggs, even as many as two thousand per day. These eggs will sit in the queen’s abdomen, extending her size considerably and deterring her ability to walk. This is where the colony again pitches in and attends to her needs.
It is the wood-burrowing termites that are most bothersome to home owners. Because termites live together in colonies and can multiply at rapid rates, it is vital that you extinguish the entire colony as quickly as possible if you want to free your home from their existence.
The primary step for termite control in shielding a house is to prevent termites from gaining access in the first place. This is achieved by placing a barrier below or around the house. You should keep all perimeter walls, foundations, slabs, patios and flowerbeds free from clutter and unnecessary debris. You can get treatment for wood that will deter termites from making a home there and you can also buy pre-treated or naturally resistant timber for any garden furniture or wooden objects that will be put in close proximity to soil. Wood is the main staple in a termite’s diet, so remove all unnecessary wood from your garden. This includes old tree trunks or stumps, leftover building materials, ornamental sleepers and logs.
Termites are also attracted to water so you should ensure your property does not have any leaks or dripping taps. The worst time of year for termite activity is early spring to late summer.
In the unfortunate circumstance that you have found an infestation of termites in your property, please try to remain calm. The chances are those termites will have already been there a little while, so another day or two is not going to make a very big difference. However, it is vital that you take measures to eradicate them as quickly and efficiently as possible. Otherwise, the damage they can do will certainly get worse and then you really would be facing a panic situation.
When you are trying to eradicate a colony of termites it is imperative that you kill the reproductive kings and queens, otherwise they will continue to reproduce and your infestation will be reintroduced in no time. Your local pest control professionals, are the best contact when your home is under threat of a termite invasion because they know exactly how to go about tackling them and can boast years of experience in dealing with this very problem.
If the thought of all these termites invading your home is giving you sleepless nights and making you uncomfortable, you should consider the fact that in some countries termites are actually eaten as food by humans.
You can of course try to tackle the termite invasion yourself, with products bought from DIY stores specifically for termite removal such as Bait or Termiticide. These products do work and this may appear to be a cheaper option but in the long run it is probably not going to be nearly as effective as having your home inspected and cleared by a termite control company. This is because one of the most effective ways to combat a termite infestation is by fully understanding how they work, this includes which areas of your home they will be most attracted to and how they react to different treatments. Obviously most people are not equipped with this knowledge and that’s another reason it’s a better idea to get in the professionals, plus when attempting to deal with the termites yourself, you won’t have the assured peace of mind that the problem has been entirely dealt with.



ANT REMOVAL

Ants may be small, but they sure are clever and working together they can achieve amazing things. Signs that there may be ants inhabiting your property include identifying ant pathways coming in and out of your house or small piles of earth and ground, which may indicate nesting sites.
The presence of ants on your premises can infest and contaminate your food and clean areas. They are not well liked but they are relatively harmless and can usually be controlled fairly easily.
To identify the species of ant invading your home, or business premises, you really need to get advice from professional pest controllers. There are over 15,000 different species of ant around the world, although only 40 are well known in the United Kingdom. You should ant-proof access points in your garden and arrange for professionally qualified experts to make regular inspections after an infestation has been eradicated to ensure they do not return.
The Black Ant and the Pharaoh Ant are the two most common types to be found invading our homes. Black ants nest outside but are commonly found within houses on their hunt for food, they prefer sweet, sugary foods such as jam. As well as human food, ants also prey on greenfly and blackfly and other small garden insects. . They are more of a nuisance than a health risk because they do not transmit any diseases, but they do travel through unhygienic places and as such they can quickly contaminate food with their germs.

Ants traditionally built their nests around plant roots but they are increasingly being found in the cavity walls of properties. Although ants are generally disliked, they are quite important within their natural surroundings. They aerate soil, break down organic matter and assist in controlling the population of other insects.
Ants establish colonies in order to work together and get tasks done. They send out ant scouts to find food and water resources and these scouts leave a scented trail which allows them to easily find their way back to their colony with news of the resources they have found. They then get other colony members to come with them to retrieve the food and water.
If you want to get rid of ants you need to destroy their scent trails, eliminate their chances at finding food sources and seal off the entrances to your home that they may use to gain access.
In order to destroy the scent trails effectively you should use soapy water and carefully scrub down the entire area from where they found food right back to their colony, if you can trace it.
The use of Vaseline, chilli powder, cinnamon, diatomaceous earth and boric acid are all items people have used to deter ants from entering their homes and they’ve all been reported to work well on a temporary basis. A more permanent solution is to caulk cracks, holes and crevices where the ants may crawl through.
Because ants are so tiny they can squeeze their way into even the smallest of gaps in a bid to get at a newfound source of food. All your opened food should be kept in tightly shut container and jars.
Ants appear in hot weather and don’t like the cold so Ants don’t tend to enter your refrigerator, therefore your food will also be safe in there. You should always wipe down all surfaces such as worktops, tables and floors on a daily basis. Hygiene is the best ant deterrent and regularly cleaning out your cupboards, washing away stains and crumbs will certainly help eliminate their food sources. A tiny crumb to us will be a very satisfying meal to an ant colony.
Ants will eat anything and pet food can be a particular favourite. In order to deter them you should put your pet’s food bowl within another bowl of soapy water, which will create a moat around the bowl that ants will crawl into and trap them.
A garden product that Ants thrive on is the honeydew which is created by certain insects. If you can control insects that produce honeydew and choose plants that do not attract these insects then you will again reduce the ant colony’s food supply.
Baits can have both a positive and negative effect on eradicating ant colonies. Ant bait contains something that tastes good to ants so they are very attracted to it and the ant scouts will send for their colony to sample it. The ant bait also contains poison so it kills them off. However, because it is particularly tasty bait for ants, they can end up being lured from miles around, so instead of just eradicating the colony which originally entered your home, you will have inadvertently attracted many more colonies to visit your home. Baits are best used in the path of an ant trail and removed fairly promptly after the ant activity ends.
Sticky barrier traps are a very popular deterrent to stop ants from climbing trees and plants. The queen is in charge of an ant colony and she is the only one to reproduce. The rest of the colony is made up of scouts (also known as workers), infertile females and males. They have slightly different features from one another and differing roles within their colony.
Ants mate using their wings and breed during flight. Males die very quickly after mating and the queen then sets up a new colony in her chosen spot. The queen hibernates through the winter months and lays her eggs in spring.
If you discover an ant’s nest near your home you should pour boiling water into it. Ants can survive in water but boiling water will kill them. This is not a terribly effective method though and you are advised to contact pest control experts to fully eradicate the ants with the use of specially formulated chemicals.
COCKROACH REMOVAL
The prospect of cockroaches appearing in your home is enough to send anyone over the edge. They are dirty little pests, with a particularly unpleasant appearance which terrifies many people.
If you have turned on the lights in the middle of the night, only to catch site of these ugly little critters scurrying over your floor, you will no doubt be looking to exterminate sooner rather than later. Unfortunately Cockroaches are known for being pretty resilient and unaffected by many of the traditional extermination methods, which makes getting, rid of them an even harder mission.
The cockroach is a dark brown insect, about one inch long with spiky hind legs and large antennas, a broad back and a relatively small head. They are extremely primitive creatures with mouthparts on the underside of the head. The Cockroach does have wings, but doesn’t actually fly very far; it has two parallel streaks running from the head to the base of its wings. The most common cockroach to be found in homes, restaurants, hotels and food establishments is the German cockroach.

Cockroaches live in warm, dark areas and tend to be nocturnal by nature. Residential properties are a particularly attractive home prospect for cockroaches because they like to escape from the ravages of weather elements. Unfortunately they like to find warm, dark places to hide such as shoes or the humidity of the bathroom. One of the reasons Cockroaches are such filthy creatures are that they very often live in sewer pipes and emerges from these to enter the home. They are full of germs and are known to carry dysentery, gastro-enteritis typhoid and food poisoning organisms. Cockroaches eat anything and happily feed on scraps in your kitchen, or in your bins, with the result that they easily contaminate food and spread diseases from their body or from the droppings they leave all over your property.
Throughout the world there are over 4,000 species of cockroach, 30 of these are associated with human habitations and four are particularly well known as pests in residential properties. These four include the American Cockroach, the German cockroach, the Asian Cockroach and the Oriental Cockroach.
Cockroaches develop from eggs to adults over the course of a three month period and they live from six months to approximately one year in total. Female cockroaches lay eggs up to eight times, producing three to four hundred baby cockroaches. When a large infestation is present, you may get an unpleasant scent, not unlike almonds.
Therefore, you can quickly get the idea of how rapidly these beasts multiply if one cockroach can produce another 400 in such a short space of time! Apart from the fact they are hardened to changes in the environment, they are also able to survive without food for as long as three months and water for a month. They are quite immune to the effects of ordinary insecticides but nowadays there are many cockroach specific brands on the market, available from DIY hardware stores and on the Internet or even some supermarkets and pet stores.
As a short term solution to getting rid of cockroaches people often make their own traps using jars or containers with an inch of water, which cockroaches can fall into and drown. Boric acid powder is commonly used around points of entry where cockroaches might attempt to get into the building. This powder sticks to the underside and legs of the cockroaches and when they ingest it they will die. The bonus about the powder is that they bring it back to their nests and ultimately kill other members of their family.
If you have discovered a problem then you really shouldn’t get complacent about it and although you can use the aforementioned suggestions, it should only be to give you immediate reassurance that you are attempting to tackle the problem whilst you wait for the cockroach control exterminators to arrive. These short term solutions really won’t make much of a dent in a cockroach infestation purely because of the number of eggs each one is capable of producing and because their hiding places are usually difficult to gain access to or indeed find.
Longer term solutions for exterminating cockroaches on a permanent basis include the use of an electronic emitter which sends out a high frequency noise that they hate the sound of. Alternatively you could use a ‘pesticide bomb’ or ‘fogger’ but these emit a strong, chemical based pesticide so the room has to be fully sealed off and is not ideal for use in the home, unless carried out by professional cockroach control experts. Sticky traps are sometimes used to capture them but these are not for the faint hearted because not many people like the sight of cockroaches, whether alive or dead, so they are unlikely to want to deal with having to dispose of them from the sticky traps.
With Cockroaches being so resilient and environmentally adaptive, it is important to aggressively attack their presence in your home and Pest Control Exterminators are completely trained to do this efficiently and without fuss, sending these pests packing in no time.

FLEAS TREATMENT AND CONTROL
There are a few different types of fleas but the most well known are dog fleas and cat fleas. Human fleas used to be a problem too but they are very rare nowadays. Fleas don’t have wings and they tend to jump from place to place. They are absolutely tiny, between 1/12th and 1/6th of an inch. Fleas are parasites with very sharp mouths; they attach themselves to hosts and use their mouthparts for piercing the skin and sucking out the blood. Fleas lay eggs on the ground, in nests, in carpets, bedding, blankets, upholstered suites or cracks in the floor. The eggs then hatch where they lay, between one and two weeks later. The larvae born from the egg begins feeding straight away on organic debris and is particularly partial to the faeces of adult fleas, which contains a quantity of undigested blood, which they thrive on.
Fleas most often enter the home via domestic pets. Cat fleas are the most common type and if you discover that your pet has fleas you can be pretty sure that they will have begun making a home for themselves throughout the rest of your property. The larvae from fleas loves nothing better than to develop in dry, warm conditions, such as bedding, carpets and homes with central heating.
Although fleas do not directly spread diseases, dog fleas have been known to transmit dog tapeworm to humans and fleas give their hosts annoying little bites, which can become infected if they are over-scratched.
Unfortunately animals are prone to fleas and there is very little you can do about that other than regularly washing them and treating them with a flea shampoo. You should also thoroughly wash all pet bedding at least two or three times a week and tumble-dry if possible as well. Infestation tell-tale-signs include small red bite marks on your body which are usually very itchy and you would probably notice your pet scratching more than usual.
Minor flea infestations can be treated with insecticides from hardware stores, pet shops or your local veterinary surgery. These come in powders, sprays and shampoos and can be used to treat sheets, blankets, carpets, curtains, drapes, upholstery and throws. You can get a flea collar to put round your pet’s neck, which will regularly release small quantities of insecticide onto your pets fur, it is not strong enough to kill fleas outright but it acts as a good repellent.
If you are unfortunate enough to have a flea infestation in your home then you should call in the pest control professionals immediately for advice. Prior to them arriving at your property you should ensure that you have begun to combat the flea problem by thoroughly vacuuming the entire house, including upholstery to remove animal hair, fleas, flea eggs and pupae. You should take any pets to the vet for full flea treatment and you should ensure all bins and vacuum bags are disposed of out with your house. You should also ensure your house is free of clutter.
Pest control experts have many years experience in eradicating homes of flea infestations so you will have no worries once you have spoken with them.
BEDBUGS REMOVAL & CONTROL


Bed bugs are tiny little insects that suck the blood from humans and animals. The adult bed bug is 4 or 5mm long with a flattened oval body and no wings. It is a reddish brown colour, whilst the baby bed bugs are translucent so cannot be seen without the aid of a magnifying glass. They crawl around bedding and feed during the very early hours of the morning, about an hour before sunrise. They are present throughout all months of the year and are able to reproduce all year round. The eggs are milky-white coloured and about 1mm wide. They are usually found in clusters of anything up to a few hundred.
No one relishes the thought of Bed bugs or their eggs inhabiting their bedrooms and if you suspect that you may have a bedbug infestation then you will want to get rid of them as promptly as possible.
There are a number of products on the market for ridding your home of bed bugs; these include bedbug specific insecticide sprays and powders. One of the most effective home-method is the use of a steam cleaner because the intense heat from the steam will kill them outright, it will also do a great job of cleaning your mattress and wherever else you intend to use it.

Because Bed bugs are so tiny and they multiply at a rapid rate you can never be 100% sure you have got rid of them all, that’s why most people prefer to call in pest control professionals to eradicate them completely.
If you are bitten by a bed bug you will probably not feel it right away. When the bed bug bites you it simultaneously injects your skin with an aesthetic which numbs the surrounding area, this means you are unaware you are being bitten until the numbness wears off. Everyone reacts differently to bed bug bites, some people get weils that weep puss from the middle, whilst others experience tiny red bumps like a rash. They are always incredibly itchy and excessive scratching at them can cause infection in the skin or even scarring. Other than this, bed bugs are not actually considered a medical threat because they do not transmit any known diseases. If you have bites on your body that you think may be caused by bedbugs, you should closely inspect your bedsheets for tiny droplets of blood.
Bed bug eggs hatch in one to two weeks, and the newborn nymphs begin to feed immediately. They pass through five moulting stages before reaching maturity, requiring a feed during each of these stages. They are attracted to the warmth of human bodies and the carbon dioxide on our breath. Their favourite place to thrive is the bedrooms but they can be found in cracks and crevices of other places through the day. Their most likely hideaways include the seams of mattresses, cracks in your bed frame or headboard and behind bedroom furniture.
At one time bed bugs were pretty much completely eradicated from the United Kingdom, but in the past fifteen years they’ve begun to make a comeback. There are a number of reasons for this, firstly the increase in accessible and cheap international travel, along with many foreign nationals making a home in the UK. Secondly, there used to be an insecticide used to kill off cockroaches from place of high occupancy, such as hotels and it inadvertently killed bed bugs at the same time. Unfortunately the use of this substance is now banned and many types of bait are used to catch cockroaches instead. These baits don’t attract the bedbugs so they are left in peace to thrive once more.
Bed bugs are most commonly brought into homes after you have stayed in a hotel or other residential establishment, which was experiencing an infestation. The bedbugs crawl onto your clothes and are unintentionally packed away in your suitcase and brought home. They can also live in upholstery so are sometimes brought home with furniture from thrift shops or car-boot sales and antique fairs.
One of the best ways to keep them at bay is to keep an extra clean and hygienic house. Vaccuum everyday and vacuum your mattresses on a regular basis. Change your bedding at least once a week and boil wash and tumble dry it if possible. By using DIY products along with maintaining good hygiene levels and regularly deep cleaning you are likely to keep any emergence of bedbugs under control, but to fully eradicate them from your premises you don’t have much choice other than to call in the pest control experts for a fast, efficient service.
Bed bugs are pretty hardy and can survive very cold or hot temperatures, they are certainly one of the most difficult household pests to fully eradicate. They can crawl through walls to adjoining properties and can travel on clothes or blankets, so you should be very careful not to transfer your bedbug infestation to neighbours or friends properties.
If you suspect a bed bug infestation in your home, you are highly advised to contact the pest control experts immediately.

RATS- CONTROL AND REMOVAL
Rats are large long-tailed rodents and one of the worst possible pest infestations you can be subjected to. Rats are extremely unhygienic creatures, which cause lots of damage to property and pass on diseases.
If you discover you have rats in your home, it is vital that you get it dealt with immediately. Do not delay; call your local pest control professionals immediately. Rats are extremely unsanitary and are a serious hazard to public health. Historically it was fleas from rats that caused the outbreak of Bubonic Plague and to this day they regularly spread diseases such as Salmonella Food Poisoning, Jaundice and Typhus.
Rats contaminate food with their droppings and urine and they cause untold damage to buildings, equipment and personal effects. Their teeth are sharp and can gnaw through wood, they destroy anything in a bid to build their nests and this regularly causes fire hazards when the chew through insulation and electrical wires. A bite from a rat can be extremely serious, even fatal in certain circumstances.

Rats can be a nuisance at any time of the year but are more common in homes as the weather gets cooler. They are most active in the early evening and build their nests behind walls or underground. They want to be safe and near to food and water sources, if you are suspicious of rats in your home you should check behind cupboards or worktops and wall spaces near to rubbish disposal.
Rats multiply very quickly, they are fertile creatures and have as many as six litters per year, with 6 to 14 baby rats in each litter. By three months old the offspring are ready to reproduce themselves, therefore if you ignore a rat infestation in your home, it could rapidly take over. The usual lifespan of a rat in the wild is 18 months.
There are a few tell tale signs indicating the presence of rats. Evidence could include gnawing, damage to stored products, rat droppings (dark brown and the size of a sultana), oily rub marks (rats excrete an oil to protect their fur), small footprint tracks in dust, burrows, nests, and the noise of rats scurrying about.
The most common rat found in homes is the brown rat. This is also known as the Sewer Rat or House Rat. It is dullish brown and measures 32 cm to 43 cm from nose to tail. Its ears are small and close-set and it has very sharp teeth.
The biggest reason for rats is unsanitary conditions, which encourage them to set up home. When you call in the pest control professionals they will give you advice on rat-proofing your home and improving the hygiene levels to deny them access to any food sources other than the poison bait used to catch and kill them.
In order to prevent rats entering your home you should ensure that all foodstuffs are carefully stored in sealed containers and rubbish should be kept in bins that are regularly emptied.



METHYL BROMIDE FUMIGATION

Methyl Bromide is an odorless and colorless gas. Classified as an ozone depleting compound in the Montreal Protocol, Methyl Bromide has limited availability.
Use of Methyl Bromide is limited to:
 Quarantine Fumigation of commodities entering the United States under USAID/APHIS jurisdiction, requiring fumigation of specific commodities to prevent the import of pests and/or disease.
 Critical Use Exemptions for commodities which do not have an alternative fumigant available.
 Exemptions extended to specific industries (Example: Pet Food)
 Pre-shipment Fumigations for commodities being exported from the United States that come under quarantine requirements of the destination country (Example: ISPM 15 Fumigation of wooden pallets)
Methyl Bromide’s availability decreases each year with manufacturers producing less and less of the fumigant. Eventually, Methyl Bromide fumigant will no longer be used. Many Methyl Bromide Alternatives are available or in various stages of development.

Methyl Bromide is most widely used fumigant for quarantine purposes. It is a preferred fumigant for most of the quarantine authorities around the world, because of its good penetrating ability, rapid action, high toxicity to a broad spectrum of insects and pests.
The effectiveness of methyl bromide is based on the following:
Dosage of the fumigant
Duration of exposure
Temperature
Methyl bromide is frequently used for fumigating timber, agricultural products, empty containers, food stuffs, and other agricultural produce. When fumigation is carried out with Methyl Bromide fumigant, there will not be any residual issues as aeration can be carried out easily. It is very effective in controlling insects at all stages; from egg to the adult stage.
As per International Plant Protection conversion Methyl bromide is an approved fumigant which can be used for treating export cargo containing wooden packing materials.
Fumigants only control existing infestations in the cargo they do not provide any residual protection against subsequent re-infestation. Consequently timber treated by fumigation must be packed in container or shipped within 21 days of treatment. During this 21 day period it should be stored safely or cross infestation may occur. After Completion of Methyl Bromide Fumigation when agri products are taken for repacking care should be taken to maintain the repacking area pest free and good hygienic practices should be followed in order to avoid cross infestation between fumigated and unfumigated cargo.
Methyl bromide is absorbed by oils, fats and finely ground materials. It is also known to react with materials containing sulphur, including food stuffs and proteins to produce objectionable discoloration and odours which may persist even after prolonged aeration. When there are concern about possible deleterious effects of methyl bromide, an alternative treatment may be sought.




FUMIGATION OF WOODEN CRATES

Fumigation of wooden crates should be carried out with methyl bromide at the dosage of 48 grams per meter cube. In this process the wooden packing crates are placed in the fumigation covers under a smooth floor and then it converted completely. The gas monitoring lines for measuring gas concentration during the exposure period is placed at different locations as per requirements. The fumigation covers are sealed with the help of sand snakes and an air tight enclosure is made. The total cubic area of the enclosure is measured and the required dosage of methyl bromide is administrated. Gas monitoring is carried out during the exposure period. After the exposure period of 24 hours the fumigation covers are removed and the empty wooden crates are aerated
In Sri Lanka most of the exporters are using rubber wood for packing purpose. The ideal wood would be Kiln dried pine wood
Methyl Bromide fumigation should be carried out for packing materials such as wood crates, skids and other packing materials. Plant material such as straw, rice hulls and similar plant material used as packing material can carry exotic insect pest and diseases. The wooden crates have to be treated prior to shipment by carrying out fumigation with Methyl Bromide. The maximum thickness of the packing wood must not exceed 200 mm.
Pallets, with or without commodity, can be fumigated using one of two methods:
 Tarp Fumigation
 Container Fumigation
Tarp Fumigations consist of covering the pallets with a gas proof fumigation tarp, with edges such that a gas seal is achieved.
Container Fumigations, the preferred method of pallet fumigation, place the pallets to be treated in a sealed container for fumigation. This method of pallet fumigation as it ensures the penetration of the fumigant and there is less risk associated with potential leakage. Learn more about Container Fumigations.
ISPM 15 Compliance for International Shipments
Due to the International Plant Protection Convention (IPCC) most pallets shipped across national borders must comply with ISPM 15 Regulations.








PHOSPHINE FUMIGATION
Phosphine or hydrogen phosphide (PH3) is a low molecular weight, low boiling point compound that diffuses rapidly and penetrates deeply into materials, such as large bulks of grain or tightly packed materials. The gas is produced from formulations of metallic phosphides (usually aluminium or magnesium phosphide) that contain additional materials for regulating release of the gas.
AIP + 3H2O  PH3^ + Al(OH)3
Mg3P2 + 6H2O  2PH3^ + 3Mg(OH)2
Aluminium phosphide is formulated 8S tablets, pellets or small sachets of powder with additional materials such as ammonium carbamate, ammonium bicarbonate, urea and paraffin to regulate release of fumigant and suppress flammability. The magnesium phosphide is similarly manufactured in tablets or pellets. It is also prepared in flat plates; here the formulation is embedded in a plastic matrix that regulates access of moisture and hence controls release of the gas. After the phosphine has evolved from a formulation, the residue that remains consists mainly of aluminium or magnesium hydroxide. Small amounts of undecomposed aluminium phosphide may also remain in the greywrlite dust from tablets, pellets or sachets.






PROPERTIES OF PHOSPHINE
Alternative name: hydrogen phosphide
Odour Carbide or garlic-like odour may be due to impurities
Chemical formula PH3
Boiling point -87.4°C
Freezing point -133.5°C
Molecular weight 34.04
Specific gravity gas (air = 1) 1.214°
liquid (water at 4°C = 1) 0.746(-90)
Latent heat of vaporization 102.6 cal/g
Lowest explosion point 1.79% by volume in air
Solubility in water 26 cc/100 ml at 17°C (very slightly soluble)
Method of evolution as fumigant From preparations of aluminium and magnesium phosphide
Pertinent chemical properties Reacts with copper and precious metals.
Natural vapour pressure at different temperatures
0°C (32°F) 21.6 atmos
20°C (68°F) 34.2 atmos
40°C (104°F) 51.9 atmos
Dosages and concentrations of gas in air (25°C and 760 mm pressure)
By volume Weight per volume
Parts per million Percent 1g/m³ lb/l 000ft³
20.3 0.00003 0.0004
20 0.002 0.03
50 0.005 0.07
100 0.01 0.14
200 0.02 0.28
500 0.05 0.70
718 0.072 1.00 0.04
1 000 0.10 1.39 0.087
11 493 1.15 16.00 1.00
20 000 2.0 27.84 1.74

1Ounces per 1000 cubic feet or milligrams per litre
2Threshold limit, ACGIH, 1981.

A strong odour, resembling carbide or garlic, is normally associated with the evolution of phosphine from various formulations. It can be detected by smell even at very low concentrations. This odour seems to be due to the presence of other compounds produced along with phosphine and they may be preferentially absorbed during fumigation treatments. Under some conditions the odour may disappear, even when insecticidally effective concentrations are still present in the free space of a fumigation system (Bond and Dumas, 1967; Dumas and Bond, 1974). While any odour associated with the evolution of phosphine may indicate the presence of phosphine, it should not be relied on for warning purposes.

TOXICITY
Phosphine is very toxic to all forms of animal life, hence exposure of human beings even to small amounts should be avoided. Poisoning can result from ingestion or inhalation; however, the gas is not absorbed through the skin. A concentration of 2.8 mg/l (ca 2 000 ppm in air) is lethal to humans in a very short time (Flury and Zernik, 1931). The threshold limit value is usually set at 0.3 ppm for a 40-hour work week. Symptoms of poisoning for humans are described below under "First Aid".
Phosphine ranks as one of the most toxic fumigants of stored product insects (see Chapter 14, Table 16). It is a slow acting poison that is effective at very low concentrations if the exposure time is long enough. Usually, exposure times of four or more days are required to control insects, depending on temperature. The toxicity of phosphine to insects declines as the temperature falls to 5°C, so that longer exposure times are required for it to exert its effect. It is not recommended for use below 5°C. The exposure time cannot be shortened by increasing the dosage; in fact, high concentrations can have a narcotic effect on insects thereby reducing mortality (Winks, 1974a).
Phosphine has an inhibitory effect on insect respiration and is unique in that it is only toxic to insects in the presence of oxygen - in the absence of oxygen it is not absorbed and is not toxic to insects (Bond et al 1967, 1969). However, the action of phosphine is potentiated by carbon dioxide and the exposure time can be reduced when both gases are present (Kashi and Bond, 1975).
Some stages of insects are considerably more tolerant to phosphine than others (Bell, 1976; Hole et al, 1976; Nakokita and Winks, 1981). The eggs and pupae are usually hardest to kill while larvae and adults succumb more easily. Reynolds et al (1967) found that this tolerance was at least partially overcome by the development that occurred in the insects during the relatively long exposure periods. For example, a 10-day exposure of various stages of Sitophilus Granaries was found to be long enough to permit the different stages to reach a susceptible point of development at some time during the fumigation. These results suggest that all pre-adult stages, some of which are quite tolerant to the fumigant, may reach a susceptible stage of development during a 10-day fumigation, so that an exposure period of this length will lead to complete mortality. Howe (1974) discussed problems relating to the laboratory investigation of phosphine toxicity to storedproduct insects.
Observations to date on the effectiveness of phosphine on mites in bulks of grain indicate that the fumigant may be successful in bringing about immediate reduction in mite populations and thus improving the condition of the grain (Van den Bruel and Bollaerts, 1956). However, populations of some species have been seen to build up again in the grain after an interval of time. This is partially due to the fact that natural predators such as the mite, Chevletus eruditus (Schr.), are eliminated and partially because some stages of destructive species of mites are resistant to the fumigant (Heseltine and Thompson, 1957; Sinha et al, 1967). Tests on dried prunes have shown that satisfactory control of mites on this commodity can be obtained with phosphine (Cangardel and Fleurat-Lessard, 1976).
INSECT RESISTANCE
The effectiveness of phosphine can be reduced considerably by development of resistance in insects. Winks (1974b) showed that Tribolium castaneum could develop 10-fold resistance to phosphine in six generations. Resistance may occur in immature stages as well as in adult insects. Bell et al (1977) found a good correlation between resistance in the adult stage of Rhyzopertha dominica and resistance in the egg stage. Champ and Dyte (1976) found evidence of resistance to phosphine in insects from several parts of the world, particularly where inadequate techniques of fumigation were employed, and they indicated that emergence of resistance to fumigants under practical conditions was a matter of great concern. There is recent evidence (Borah and Chalal, 1979; Tyler et al, 1983) of the development of resistance to phosphine in field populations of Khapra beetle and other insects infesting stored grain. Hole (1981) discussed the variation in tolerance of seven species of stored-product Coleoptera to phosphine in strains from twenty-nine countries. Further information on the nature and occurrence of resistance is given in Chapter 2.



EFFECT ON PLANT LIFE
Seeds
There is considerable evidence from studies so far conducted that phosphine in insecticidal treatments does not, under normal conditions, affect the germination of seeds. Strong and Lindgren (1960b) tested cereal, sorghum and small legume seeds with one or two (repeat) fumigations at comparatively high conc